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I heartily welcome
you all to the Seminar on subject ‘ Science and Technology in Ancient
India’ being held under the auspices of Institute for Oriental Study,
Thane. The progress, growth, modernity and development are the words
used more or less synonymously as an index of prosperity of the
society. No opportunity is wasted by our politicians, social activists
and reformists to remind us that we should inculcate and imbibe
scientific temper, scientific outlook and scientific insight in
every walk of our life. The leaders of the developed world are seen
in hurry to inform their citizens of the technological and scientific
breakthroughs achieved by the scientists of their nations. The recent
announcement of the landing of Pathfinder on Mars or NASA’s claim
to have found possibilities of life supporting elements on the Mars
by no less a person than Mr. Clinton, President of USA is not the
only example. In 1962, John F. Kennedy’s address to the nation was
to inform America’s goal of putting a man on the moon. India’s first
nuclear explosion in 1974 was also an exhibition of scientific abilities
India possessed. Such announcements gave authority and power to
the politicians camouflaging the cost society has to pay in the
form of money and suffering. This also creates a euphoria of
safety, progress and misconception that science has increased our
control over nature. It also becomes a metaphor for rationality,
logic and modernity. Religion, tradition become a superstitious
phenomenon working against scientific temper and progress. What
is understood as scientific, modern and progressive, today is western
civilisation in its modern form. Modernisation means westernisation.
We have just completed fifty years of our independence. In spite
of all talk of globalisation, acceptance of western cultural and
social value systems, the country is in crisis, both morally and
economically. If India wants to come out of this crisis and wants
to become functional and creative again, we need to re-look into
our past. Grafting of modernity in the name of science and progress,
disregarding the principles which governed the civilisation for
thousands of years is bound to destroy the borrower. The achievements
of ancient Indians are better documented today than in the seventeenth
century. To know them for the sake of glory is one thing but to
try to understand the reasons and the philosophy which could create
such a society is quite another.
As a preamble
to the present seminar, I wish to emphasise the latter aspect. Achievements
in science and technology to be understood as the measuring rod
for progress in social, moral, economic fields,is a paradigm taken
to be as valid today as it was in the 17th century.And this so called
scientific temperament is believed and publicised to be an intrinsic
trait of European culture, totally absent in non- european culters.
Continuing this logic, it is believed that it is the birth-right
of Europeans first to control and rule and then to ‘civilise’ the
non-European. This arrogance gave sufficient justification for the
colonisation (and attendant exploitation) of continents other than
Europe. This European mind -set still continues to operate throughout
the world even after the days of political colonization are over.
The most telling example of the germs of the European superiority
still being operative can be seen in the writings of Kuhn [1]
Every
civilization of which we have records has possessed a technology,
an art, a religion, a political system, laws, and so on. In many
cases those facets of civilizations have been as developed as our
own. But only the civilizations that descended from Hellenic Greece
have possessed more than the most rudimentary science. The bulk
of scientific knowledge is a product of Europe in the last four
centuries. No other place and time has supported the very special
communities from which scientific productivity comes.
We cannot relive
the past and undo the harm that is done to our mentality by this
European prejudice. However, we certainly can look back, study and
analyse our own past to understand what the vital principle was
which has sustained us as a living culture (apart from Chinese)
while other ancient civilisations succumbed to the attacks of the
Western European hegemony. However, to study this sustaining aspect
of our culture we shall have to break the shackles of prejudice
created by Europe and attendant inferiority complex of ours. I would
like to elaborate in more details on this topic in my speech today
as a preamble to this seminar.There are three major difficulties
in achieving this psychological freedom, They are:
(1) Organised
destruction of indigenous technology by the colonial masters to
promote their commercial, economic and political interests.
(2) Application of Newtonian, deterministic scientific methodology
to the study of social phenomena, especially history, parameters
in which are non- quantifiable.
(3) Marxist historiography.
Taking the last
one first, the dialectical method of interpreting History, the concept
of linear progress, Marx’s own outrageous misunderstanding of Indian
and his stout justification of British colonial rule have done immeasurable
damage to our psyche.. Marxism damaged the future of the Soviet
block countries, but it marred the past of India. I enlist the support
of Dr.R.N.Dandekar to substantiate this bold claim of mine. [2]
To
begin with, one would challenge Marx’s observation that the history
of India is nothing but the history of successive intruders. Even
a cursory study of the several periods in the history of India would
expose the patently superficial character of that observation. One
has also to give up Marx’s theory of the unchangeableness of Asiatic
societies, for, considerable changes can be shown to have occurred
in the Indian society even from the materialistic point of view.
As a matter of fact, Marx’s has based his whole theory primarily
and essentially on his knowledge of the European situation as it
had obtained in the various periods of history; it may not, therefore,
be validly applied in toto to Asian countries like India. Indeed,
so far as India is concerned, it would be necessary to modify the
stages of the socio-economic development as laid down so firmly
by Marx’s. For instance, the hard and fast distinction between
the stage of food-gatherers and that of food-producers is completely
shaken by the excavations at Kalibangan where evidence has become
available of plough-farming having been known in India as early
as 2500 B.C. Similarly, India does not seem to have ever had a classical
slave economy in the same sense as Greece of Rome. There was no
period in the history of India in which her economy depended upon
large-scale chattel slavery, which, according to orthodox Marxism,
inevitably preceded the feudal stage of history. And whatever loose
kind of feudalism there may have existed in India, it cannot be
set to conform to the orthodox Marxist definition of it. It is thus
difficult to fit Indian history into the neat scheme of periodization
which Marx and Engels have laid down as the inevitable course of
historical development.
The success-story
of the Industrial revolution is undeniably base on the principles
of Newtonian - Cartesian view of the world and man. This brought
about a shift from the organic to the mechanistic world - view.
This engendered the Baconian philosophy of using science to dominate
and control nature. The crux of the Cartesian philosophy is Radical
Doubt. This culminated into what is known as Physicalism, impersonal
objectivity, pushing out of the realm of science all that was not
measurable - intuition, inspiration, subjective experience, in short.
The influence of this viewpoint on science and its limitation can
be best expressed in the words of Stanislav Grof [3]
Newtonian-Cartesian
science has acquired great prestige through its pragmatic successes
that have transformed our world and life on this planet. In the
light of its triumphs, the correctness of its basic philosophical
assumptions and the accuracy of its model of the universe have been
taken for granted. In the past, countless observations and data
from various fields have been systematically suppressed or even
ridiculed on the bases of their incompatibility with mechanistic
thinking. Most Newtonian-Cartesian scientists are so thoroughly
programmed by their education or so impressed by their pragmatic
success that tend to take their model literally, as an exhaustive
and authoritative description of reality. In this way, the Newtonian-Cartesian
paradigm, once a progressive and powerful tool for science, has
become a strait-jacket, seriously impending further evolution
of human knowledge.
Even Sociology
and Anthropology adopted the physico - mathematical models, to attain
respectability as sciences and have come to dominate our historical
thinking. History of Indian science and technology is no exception.
These ‘sciences’, being the creature of the Cartesian world - view,
have no terminology, idom metaphor to desirable Indian reality.
Western philosophy and terminology became a straight - jacket in
which Indian reality can only be twisted, distorted and grossly
misunderstood, the most glaring of this being the grafting of the
term religion on to our vastly comprehensive idea of Dharma. The
need for an indigenous foundation of philosophy and terminology
to describe Indian condition is felt even by Mekim Marriot
[4]
Constructing
a theoretical social science for a culture requires somewhat more
than providing a meaningful cultural account : it requires building
from the culture’s natural categories a general system of concepts
that can be formally defined in relation to each other : it requires
developing words and measures that can be used rigorously for description,
analysis and explanation within that culture; and it especially
requires developing deductive strategies that can generate hypotheses
for empirical tests in order that the science may criticise itself
and grow. It requires doing all this in terms that will be analytically
powerful enough to define all the mejor parameters of living in
that culture without violating the culture’s ontology, its presuppositions,
or its epistemology.
Indian science
was definitely pre - Newtonian and hence was, fortunately not influenced
by it. Indian scientists never spoke of taming nature, in the manner
of Baconian arrogance, but in terms of reverentially understanding
it. So, there is a radical difference between these two view
- points. Indian science is more holistic, more symbiotic and so
Indian technology was sustainable, and socially and economically
non exploitative.
Coming to the
basic premise of justification for colonising India : it was believed
that everything Indian, especially Science and Technology, was worthless
and it was the white man’s burden to ‘civilize’ India by teaching
them. According to these zealot Missionaries Hindu religion was
nothing but a bunch of superstitious beliefs which prevented any
progress in Sciences. Only conversion to Christianity can civilise
them. Wilberforce in the Charter Debates of 1813 says [5]
….let
us endeavour to strike our roots into the soil by the gradual introduction
and establishment of our own principles and opinions; of our laws,
institutions, and manners; above all, as the source of every other
improvement, of our religion, and consequently of our morals……..that
the Indian community which should have exchanged its dark and bloody
superstitions for the genial influence of Christian light and truth………
Charles Grant,
T. B. Macaulay and Max Muller all were of the same opinion only
difference was of intensity. These claims of Christianity as catalytic
to the growth of science in west are far from truth. Christianity
was not only against science but church persecuted all those who
held views contrary to the Bible. The stories of Copernicus, Galilio
and Bruno are wellknown.
Let us start with T.B.Macaulay, the first Social Engineer
who corrupted our psyche. He arrived in India in 1834. It was in
1833 that the British parliament renewed Charter of East India Company
.His speech in the Commons in the Charter debate speaks volumes.
India was not only to be conquered geographically but the conquest
of mind was more important. Macaulay in his speech in Commons states
[6]
It
may be that the public mind of India may expand under our system
till it has outgrown that system; that by good Government we may,
educate our subjects into a capacity for better government; that,
having become instructed in European knowledge, they may, in some
future age, demand European institutions. Whether such a day will
ever come I know not. But never will I attempt to avert or retard
it. Whenever it comes, it will be proudest day in English history.
To have found a great people sink in the lowest depths of slavery
and superstition, to have so ruled them as to have made them desirous
and capable of all the privileges of the citizens, would indeed
be a title to glory all our own. The sceptre may pass away from
us. Unforeseen accidents may derange our most profound schemes of
policy. Victory may be inconstant to our arms. But there are triumphs
which are followed by no reverse. There is an empire exempt from
all natural causes of decay. Those triumphs are the pacific triumphs
of reason over barbarism; that empire is the imperishable empire
of our arts and our morals, our literature and our laws.
Macaulay was
stating nothing new. His elders Charles Grant and Wilberforce had
uttered nearly the same views 40 years before.Macaulay`s infamous
‘Minute’ is a turning point in our history. It was the greatest
insult and humiliation to Indians. It is this Minute which introduced
English as the medium of instruction and western science in the
India.. This Minute withdrew government funds for the study
of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian. Just the introduction of English
as the medium of instruction could not be so damaging ; the notion
that lay behind it was disastrous , viz. that Sanskrit and the entire
literature in it was worthless. Macaulay in his Minutes states [7]
The
question now before us is simply whether, when it is in our power
to teach this language, we shall teach languages in which, by universal
confession, there are no books on any subject which deserve to be
compared to our own, whether, when we can teach European science
we shall teach systems which, by universal confession, wherever
they differ from those of Europe differ for the worse, and whether,
we can patronize sound philosophy and true history, we shall countenance,
at the public expense, medical doctrines which would disgrace an
English boarding school …. Geography made of treacle and seas of
butter … We are a board for the washing of public money, for printing
books which are of less value than the paper on which they are printed
while it was blank --- for giving artificial encouragement to absurd
history, absurd metaphysics, absurd physics.
The universal
confession that he asserts so often was nothing but arrogant, European
( British ) abrogation, supported by diabolical megalomania. He
cannot be excused because he was ignorant of Indian achievements
till the penning of his Minute. Over a period of 60-70 years prior
to this, Research papers were presented by his compatriots in the
Royal Asiatic Society, Calcutta & England and elsewhere on various
aspects of Indian Science and Technology - which included Hindu
Mathematics, Astronomy, Mortar making, Iron smelting, Inoculation,
Manufacture of ice, paper and various techniques used in husbandry.
As a matter of fact, the Aims and Objects to start Asiatic
Society in Bengal were stated by William Jones as [8]
If
now it be asked, what are the intended objects of our inquiries
within these spacious limits( of Asia ), we answer, MAN and NATURE;
whatever is performed by the one, or produced by the other………will
examine their improvements and methods in arithmetick and geometry,
in trigonometry, mensuration, mechanicks, opticks, astronomy, and
general phisicks; their systems of morality, grammar, rhetorick,
and dialectick; their skill in chirugery and medicine, and thir
advancement, whatever it may be, in anatomy and chemistry.
The existence
of petroleum wells and the use of this natural oil was first observed
in Burma in 1797. The technique of plastic surgery was observed
by an employee of the Company in 1790. Horticus Malabaricus -a 12
volume Encyclopaedic work with illustrations of 750 species of Indian
plants was published in Europe from 1678 - 93 and the work carried
certificates from Kerala and Konkan pandits about its authenticity.
There is ample proof that sufficient science and technology was
vibrant in India. Would it not have been proper to teach on a wider
scale, this science to Indians ? But the idea was not to promote
the study of science but to build in the mind of Indians a huge
inferiority complex with meek acceptance of European Superiority.
Sir Richard Temple, the then British Governor of Bengal (1875),
about 40 years after Macaulay’s Minute admitted that the teaching
of (western) science in India would help in curbing the ambition
and self - confidence of educated Indians. James Mill, a contemporary
and mentor of Macaulay & Bentink fostered the same views.Mill
was not happy with what little good words Sir William Jones had
to say about the India, so he authored a book entitled ‘History
of British India’. Mill’s influence on many a British officer who
came to India was tremendous. His book was a standard text book
for Haileybury College which was a training institution for British
administrators. He was also the chief examiner. Mill was of the
opinion that every aspect of Indian life - especially, science and
technology, was decadent. He states [9]
The
Surya Siddhanta is the great repository of astronomical knowledge
of the Hindus … [ This book is itself the most satisfactory of all
proofs of the low state of the science among the Hindus, and the
rudeness of the people from whom it proceeds …. The observatory
at Benares, the great seat of Hindu astronomy and learning,
was found to be rude in structure, and the instruments with which
it was provided was of the coarsest contrivance and construction……
Exactly in proportion as Utility is the object of every pursuit,
we may regard the nation as civilized …. According to this rule,
the astronomical and the mathematical sciences afford conclusive
evidence against the Hindus. They have been cultivated exclusively
for the purpose of astrology; one of the most irrational of all
the pursuits; one of those which most infallibly denote a nation
barbarous; and one of those which it is most sure to renounce, in
proportion as knowledge and civilization are attained.”
his arrogance
was matched only by his ignorance ! In 1789, the following notification
was published in the Calcutta Gazette [10]
Fort William,
Revenue Department, January 14, 1789.
Notice is hereby
given that all persons whosoever ( the magistrates of the Districts
excepted ) are prohibited from making use of, or constructing boats
of the following denominations and dimensions after 1st March next
:
Luekhas
40 to 90 covids length 2.5 to 4 covids breadth.
Jelkias 30 to 70 covids length 3.5 to 5
covids breadth
Paunchways of Chandpore carrying more than 10 oars.
That the Magistrates
of Jessore, Dacca, Jahalpore, Mymensingh, Chittagong, the 24 paraganas,
Higelee, Tumlook, Burdwan and Nuddea have been directed to seize
and confiscate all boats of the above descriptions which may be
found within the limits of their respective jurisdiction after period
above mentioned.
That any Zamindar
allowing any boats of the foregoing descriptions to be built or
repaired within the limits of his Zamindary ( unless by a written
order of the Magistrate of the District ) shall forfeit to Government
the village in which such boats shall be proved to have been so
built or repaired.
That any carpenter,
blacksmith or other artificer engaging for or employed in the
building or repairing of boats of the descriptions above specified
( unless by the express permission of the Magistrate of the district
) shall be committed to close imprisonment in the ‘fouzdari’ jail
for any period not above one month, or suffer corporal punishment
not exceeding 20 strokes with a rattan.”
“Published
by Order of the Governor - General in Council.”
All those
who believe that Europe and - especially Britain - was the cradle
of Free Trade should read the Navigation Laws promulgated by the British
Crown. British administrators of the East India Company earlier and
then of the British Crown (after 1857) spared no efforts in destroying
indigenous science and technology.
Thus the British
colonised not only our land and resources, they colonised our minds.
If we want to study and understand the principles that governed
and nurtured science and technology in Ancient India, we shall have
to decolonise our minds first. It is my earnest appeal to all in
this august gathering that they impress upon the powers that be
to include the achievements of our fore-fathers in Science and Technology
in the school and college text books.
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